Finding public health's voice in an infodemic
Sierra Gaspari
Sierra Gaspari is a recent Master of Public Health graduate from McMaster University.
Introduction
The World Health Organization defines an infodemic as “too much information including false or misleading information in digital and physical environments during a disease outbreak. It causes confusion and risk-taking behaviours that can harm health”.1 This is a major public health concern leading to mistrust in health authorities that undermines public health responses.1 In this context, the need for health literacy cannot be overstated. Within the digital landscape there is misinformation, which is false information that is not intended to cause harm, and disinformation, which is false information that deliberately creates harm through manipulation or persuasion.2
Spreading misinformation
Having various media platforms creates the perfect environment for misinformation to spread quickly. People are more likely to share misinformation when it aligns with their personal identity or social norms, when it is novel, and when it elicits strong emotions.3 Unlike traditional news outlets, which typically have safeguards to prevent false claims, social media thrives off of viral content with minimal regulations.3 Algorithms promote the sharing of content and the creation of echo chambers (the formation of groups of like-minded users framing and reinforcing a shared narrative).3 For policymakers, this underscores the need for safeguards to reduce the spread of harmful content.
Impact on public health
The spread of misinformation distorts the interpretation of scientific evidence, promotes opinion polarization and echo chambers, and spreads non-specialist opinions that run counter to accurate information. This leads to heightened fear, mental and physical fatigue, and greater confusion and mistrust among people as they struggle to discern credible information online.4 Collectively, these effects result in decreased trust in government and public health systems, diluting official health messaging.4 During the COVID-19 pandemic, the spread of misinformation promoted vaccine hesitancy, refusal to follow public health restrictions, and the use of unproven treatments.5 Other false topics that are circulating social media include theories that sunscreen causes cancer, vaccines and Tylenol can cause autism, and that water fluoridation can lower IQ.6,7
Artificial intelligence’s role in health misinformation
Open-source artificial intelligence (AI) technologies can pull any information from the internet without providing sources for its data. The way in which AI formulates its responses can propagate false health-related information reinforcing the opinion of the user. This is especially worrisome considering that research suggests many humans find AI-generated texts equally or more credible than human-written texts.8,9 AI has the potential to magnify the infodemic and directly impact public health on a global scale, highlighting the need for responsible AI development and governance.8
Populations most susceptible to misinformation
A study conducted with 66,242 individuals across 24 countries found that Generation Z, non-male, less educated, and more conservative individuals were increasingly vulnerable to misinformation.10 A common misconception is that younger individuals possess high digital literacy due to their usage from a young age. Various studies have proven this to be wrong, showing that Generation Z is highly susceptible to misinformation.11-13
In 2023, a notable 44% of Canadians typically got their news or information from social media accounts unaffiliated with government, scientific or news organizations.14 Additionally, the same number of people also reported it was becoming more difficult to distinguish between true and fake news or information in 2023 versus 2020.14 Further studies are needed on how the infodemic is impacting different groups of individuals. These demographic patterns should guide targeted risk-communication strategies and resource allocation.
Recommendations
The most common policy recommendation to combat infodemics is to increase education and promotion of health literacy in the population.15-18 Achieving this goal can be done through various actions.
1. Implement health literacy into curricula
Mandating health literacy into formal education will equip students with the skills needed to critically assess health information, cultivating a strong culture of informed health understanding from an early age.15,18
2. Promote digital health literacy
Enhancing digital literacy is essential so individuals can effectively use online health resources and distinguish reliable sources.15,17 Studies also show that the public needs to be informed about an infodemic through educational, entertaining, evidence-based content.16 The public needs to be aware of how impactful the infodemic is on their health and wellbeing, with an understanding of how to react. Learning how to fact-check information is an important tool to debunk false claims.19
3. Tailored communication
Policymakers need to prioritize health communication strategies that are adapted to the needs of diverse populations and health literacy levels. Materials must be clear, easy to understand, and culturally sensitive.15,17 Increased funding to support the development and dissemination of public health risk communications can increase the presence of factual information in the digital landscape.18 Health care providers and community partners should promote accurate, tailored, and evidence-based information. As leaders in the community, they should focus on informing people to establish their role as the trustworthy source of health information.5,16
4. Health literacy assessment
To target interventions and tailor resources to specific groups, ongoing evaluations should be conducted to measure health literacy levels within the population.15
5. Public-private partnerships
Governments should formalize partnerships between public health agencies, educational institutions, healthcare providers, and the private sector to coordinate and enhance initiatives to improve health literacy.15,18
6. Establish interdisciplinary task forces
Governments should assemble experts across disciplines to effectively react in public health emergencies and be a trusted source of information. Having a coordinated interdisciplinary team will establish clear lines of communication and shared responsibilities to provide comprehensive response strategies.15,18
7. Develop a multiagency national security response
Treat public health disinformation, both domestic and international, as a security threat, focusing on preventing disinformation campaigns and educating the public about their tactics.18
8. Legislation and funding to develop misinformation and disinformation management infrastructure
Policymakers could build systems to address the infodemic but there is limited guidance on how to design these measures ethically or balance them with civil rights.18 The creation of policies that regulate health mis- and dis- information may interfere with freedom of speech and free flow of information.4 There is a lack of evidence on which strategies work, and how/when they are used. Any governmental regulatory or preventative approach must carefully balance public health protection with individual rights. Effective policy implementation will require stronger collaboration between health and government security sectors,18 and further research.5
Combatting misinformation requires a whole of society approach including individuals, community engagement, education, technology, government, and the private sector through laws and regulations.16,19 Public agencies must prioritize transparent communication to maintain legitimacy and public trust while working towards solutions to limit the spread of health misinformation.
References
1. World Health Organization. Infodemic WHO. 2025. https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic#tab=tab_1
2. Government of Canada. How to identify misinformation, disinformation and malinformation. Government of Canada. 2025. https://www.cyber.gc.ca/sites/default/files/misinformation-mesinformation-itsap.00.300-en.pdf
3. American Psychological Association. How and why does misinformation spread? 2025. https://www.apa.org/topics/journalism-facts/how-why-misinformation-spreads
4. Borges do Nascimento IJ, Pizarro AB, Almeida JM, et al. Infodemics and health misinformation: a systematic review of reviews. Bull World Health Organ. Sep 1 2022;100(9):544-561. doi:10.2471/blt.21.287654
5. Office of the Surgeon General. Confronting Health Misinformation 2021. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-misinformation-advisory.pdf
6. Canadian Medical Association. Why is health misinformation on social media dangerous? 2025. https://www.cma.ca/healthcare-for-real/why-health-misinformation-social-media-dangerous
7. Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health. CADTH Rapid Response Reports. Community Water Fluoridation Exposure: A Review of Neurological and Cognitive Effects – A 2020 Update. Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health Copyright © 2020 Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health.; 2020.
8. Meyrowitsch DW, Jensen AK, Sørensen JB, Varga TV. AI chatbots and (mis)information in public health: impact on vulnerable communities. Front Public Health. 2023;11:1226776. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1226776
9. Kreps S, McCain RM, Brundage M. All the News That’s Fit to Fabricate: AI-Generated Text as a Tool of Media Misinformation. Journal of Experimental Political Science. 2022;9(1):104-117. doi:10.1017/XPS.2020.37
10. Kyrychenko Y, Koo HJ, Maertens R, Roozenbeek J, van der Linden S, Götz FM. Profiling misinformation susceptibility. Personality and Individual Differences. 2025/07/01/ 2025;241:113177. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2025.113177
11. Reid L, Button D, Brommeyer M. Challenging the Myth of the Digital Native: A Narrative Review. Nursing Reports. 2023;13(2):573-600. doi:10.3390/nursrep13020052
12. Mertala P, López-Pernas S, Vartiainen H, Saqr M, Tedre M. Digital natives in the scientific literature: A topic modeling approach. Computers in Human Behavior. 2024/03/01/ 2024;152:108076. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2023.108076
13. Kirschner PA, De Bruyckere P. The myths of the digital native and the multitasker. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2017/10/01/ 2017;67:135-142. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.06.001
14. Khalid A. BH. The spread of misinformation: A multivariate analysis of the relationship between individual characteristics and fact-checking behaviours of Canadians. Digital Insights. 2024;
15. Saleem SM, Jan SS. Navigating the infodemic: strategies and policies for promoting health literacy and effective communication. Front Public Health. 2023;11:1324330. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1324330
16. Abdekhoda M, Dehnad A. Strategies to combat infodemics in public health. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 2025;31(5):340-349. doi:10.26719/2025.31.5.340
17. Eysenbach G. How to Fight an Infodemic: The Four Pillars of Infodemic Management. J Med Internet Res. 2020/6/29 2020;22(6):e21820. doi:10.2196/21820
18. Sell TK HD, Smith E, et al. . National Priorities to Combat Misinformation and Disinformation for COVID-19 and Future Public Health Threats: A Call for a National Strategy. Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security. 2021;
19. Kleiner. K. The Rise of Health Misinformation. Schulich Medicine and Dentistry 2025. https://www.schulich.uwo.ca/rapport//2025/features/the_rise_of_health_misinformation.html#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20according%20to%20the%20World%20Health,and%20it%20is%20a%20serious%20threat%20to